For centuries, the provision of agricultural extension services has been a government mandate, with the state being responsible for recruiting, training, remunerating and supervising agricultural extension workers, primarily deployed at the sub-county level.
These government extension officers serve as a pivotal resource for farmers, tasked with delivering critical information on best practices in crop and livestock management, introducing improved seed varieties and agricultural inputs, diagnosing plant and animal diseases and supporting farmers to overcome production-related challenges. This extensive mandate requires extension workers to stay up to date with industrial developments, including new seed varieties and livestock breeds in the market, variations in existing strains, appropriate use and availability of pesticides and fertilisers. Such knowledge enables extension officers to provide farmers with accurate, timely, and relevant technical guidance.
However, with Uganda’s population growing, the ratio of agricultural extension workers to farmers keeps expanding, now far exceeding the recommended benchmark of one extension worker per 500 farmers set by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). In Uganda, this ratio has more than tripled. The Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) reports that there are only 3,790 extension workers serving a population of approximately 45 million people, of whom 33 per cent are subsistence farmers seeking extension services to improve their livelihoods. The Ministry estimates a requirement of 8,698 extension workers, leaving a shortfall of 4,908 that remains unaddressed due to resource constraints.
In response to this challenge, numerous local and international non-governmental organisations have stepped in to provide agricultural extension services across a range of value chains, excluding traditional cash crops such as sugarcane, tea, and tobacco. This exclusion is largely attributable to the well-established commercial models within these value chains, as well as donor priorities. While NGOs deliver essential extension services, their presence is often driven more by funding availability than by the actual needs of farmers. This dynamic has led to the emergence of community-based extension structures, including Community-based Facilitators, Champion Farmers, Adoption Farmers, and Community Change Agents, with the aim of sustaining service delivery beyond project closure. However, despite these well-intentioned approaches, a significant gap remains in terms of incentives and motivation for continued service provision. NGOs often overestimate the long-term sustainability of such community-driven structures, assuming they will function autonomously beyond project implementation periods, an assumption that often proves unrealistic.
In November 2022, a consortium led by AVSI Foundation, together with DAI Global LLC, Makerere University Department of Social Work and Social Administration and REPARLE, secured funding from the IKEA Foundation to implement a Graduation Approach integrated with Market Systems Development Approach in Kyaka II and Kyangwali refugee settlements in Kyegegwa and Kikuube Districts of Western Uganda, dubbed the “SMILES project”. Through the integration of these two approaches, the Graduation Approach delivers sequenced and sustained household-level interventions that support both refugee and host community households to build individual capacities and fully participate in sustainable market systems strengthened through the Market Systems Development approach. The overarching goal is to improve livelihoods and enhance the self-reliance and resilience of participating households.
With agriculture underpinning the livelihoods of approximately 33 per cent of Uganda’s population; and more than 90 per cent among refugees, the SMILES Project prioritises collaboration with private sector actors across key agricultural value chains, including maize, beans, soybeans, and horticulture. These partnerships aim to address systemic constraints along the value chain, ranging from access to quality inputs and extension services to improved market access for agricultural produce. Through these partnerships, private sector entities have established frontline outlets within the settlements to supply agricultural inputs and develop extension service networks. These companies employ agronomists whose training is comparable to, or exceeds, that of government extension workers, equipping them with the technical expertise required to support farmers while also applying product-specific knowledge to facilitate sales. This dual approach addresses both farmers’ needs and the question of motivation and sustainability that often eludes NGO-led efforts.
Provision of extension services by the private sector as an embedded component of its product offerings presents a mutually beneficial arrangement. While farmers are often reluctant to pay directly for extension services, they are more likely to utilise such services when they are bundled with the purchase of agricultural inputs. Increased farmer engagement in agriculture not only improves livelihoods but also supports customer retention for private sector actors, thereby aligning farmer success with the long-term sustainability and growth of these businesses.
Resistance to direct payment for extension services is effectively addressed through private sector-led models that integrate these services into product offerings, thereby enhancing farmer motivation and customer retention. Under this model, increased sales incentivise private sector actors to establish additional demonstration gardens to stimulate demand and demonstrate product effectiveness, while also leveraging digital platforms such as community radio and regulated frequency stations to disseminate technical information more widely.
In the SMILES Project, the Market Systems Development approach has enabled the engagement of up to three agricultural market actors through de-risking and deal-note arrangements. These partners have successfully implemented innovative extension service delivery models that provide embedded support to smallholder farmers, improving access to quality inputs, agronomic knowledge, and reliable markets.
Grain Pulse, a local agribusiness operating within the maize value chain, applies the Village Agent Model to reach and support smallholder farmers. Through this model, the company provides access to high-quality seed varieties and customised blended fertilisers designed to address specific crop nutrient deficiencies. Farmers also receive tailored training in Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), aimed at strengthening agronomic decision-making and improving on-farm productivity. The model is reinforced through structured buy-back agreements, which guarantee farmers a reliable market and help reduce post-harvest losses and income volatility.
Another private sector actor, Okeba (U) Ltd, operates primarily within the soybean, common bean, and maize value chains. Through its Local Market Facilitator (LMF) model and a network of strategically located input kiosks, the company supplies a diverse range of agricultural inputs, including rhizobia inoculants that are critical for enhancing nitrogen fixation in soybean production. Okeba complements input provision with structured buy-back services for soybeans and common beans, thereby establishing a full-cycle production-to-market system. Embedded extension services delivered through LMFs provide farmers with site-specific technical advice, supporting improved productivity and more effective risk management.
Utilising a model that centres on the distribution of high-quality hybrid seeds alongside the provision of timely and relevant market information, EWS-Knowledge Transfer, a third private sector actor, focuses on the horticulture and vegetable value chains. This approach enables farmers to make informed decisions regarding crop selection, planting schedules, and market engagement. As a result, farmers are better positioned to target high-value markets with competitive, quality produce, thereby enhancing profitability and long-term sustainability.
Collectively, these embedded extension service delivery models demonstrate how strategic private sector engagement, facilitated through the Market Systems Development approach, can drive scalable, demand-driven uptake of agricultural extension services. By integrating access to quality inputs, practical extension support, and structured market linkages, these partnerships have significantly improved smallholder productivity, strengthened resilience to climate and market shocks, and enhanced overall livelihood outcomes in the fragile refugee and host community settings of Kyangwali and Kyaka II.
